Showing posts with label variables. Show all posts
Showing posts with label variables. Show all posts

MIT 6.00: Deconstructing Computation - A Defensive Architect's Perspective

The digital realm is built on foundations we often take for granted. Before we can defend the gates, understand the whispers of code, or hunt the phantoms in the machine, we must grasp the very essence of computation. This isn't a lecture on how to break, but a deep dive into the bedrock of systems, seen through the eyes of those who protect them. We're dissecting the foundational principles of computer science, not to build exploits, but to fortify our understanding of the structures attackers prey upon.

The MIT 6.00 course, "Introduction to Computer Science and Programming," from Fall 2008, offers a raw look at these fundamentals. While presented as an introductory academic offering, its content is critical for any security professional. Understanding data types, operators, and variables isn't just for developers; it's for the analyst who needs to spot anomalous data patterns, the threat hunter tracking unusual memory manipulation, and the pentester identifying logic flaws rooted in basic programming concepts.

This isn't about the latest zero-day; it's about the immutable laws governing digital reality. It's about knowing *why* a certain operation is possible, *how* data is represented, and *what* constitutes a variable's lifecycle. Without this fundamental grasp, our defenses remain superficial, vulnerable to attacks that exploit the very ABCs of computing. Today, we're not just reviewing a course; we're extracting intelligence from its core curriculum to sharpen our defensive posture.

Table of Contents

The Purpose of Computation and the Digital Fortress

At its heart, computation is about transforming information. It’s the engine that drives our digital world, from the simplest script to the most complex distributed systems. For us, the guardians of this world, understanding computation is akin to understanding the enemy’s logistics. Knowing how data flows, how instructions are processed, and how states change is paramount. The goals of this foundational MIT course – understanding computation and learning to program – directly equip us with the knowledge to anticipate how systems might be manipulated. A system that processes data is a potential target. A system that is programmed has inherent logic—and logic can have flaws. Our objective is to identify these potential points of failure before they are exploited.

Professors Eric Grimson and John Guttag laid out a curriculum that, at the time of its offering in Fall 2008, provided a robust introduction. Today, these concepts remain the bedrock. When we talk about 'computational thinking,' we are speaking about a structured approach to problem-solving that is inherently applicable to security. It’s the mentality needed to reverse-engineer a malicious payload, to analyze complex log data, or to design a resilient network architecture. We must view these elements not as mere academic curiosities, but as the fundamental components that, when misunderstood or mishandled, become the entry points for adversaries.

Anatomy of Data: Building Blocks of Vulnerability

Data types, operators, and variables are the elemental particles of any program. Their representation and manipulation are where vulnerabilities are born. Consider Primitive Data Types: integers, floating-point numbers, characters, booleans. Each has a specific size and range. Overflow errors, type confusion vulnerabilities, and data corruption issues often stem from a lack of understanding or malicious exploitation of these inherent limitations.

For instance, an integer overflow can lead to overwriting adjacent memory, potentially corrupting critical data or even executing arbitrary code. A buffer overflow in character arrays (strings) is a classic example. Recognizing the precise boundaries and expected formats of data is the first line of defense. When analyzing system behavior, spotting data that exceeds its expected type or range is a critical indicator of compromise. Threat hunting often involves sifting through mountains of data to find these anomalies – the digital equivalent of a single misplaced brick in a fortress wall.

The way data is structured affects everything. Whether it's a simple string, an array, a struct, or a complex object, its internal representation matters. Malicious actors leverage this. They might craft input that doesn't conform to expected types, hoping to trigger unintended behavior in the code that processes it. A solid grasp of data structures and their memory footprints is essential for both secure coding practices and for detecting when these structures are being abused.

Operators and Variables: The Attack Surface of Logic

Variables are containers, but operators are the actions performed upon them. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), comparison operators (>, <, ==), logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) – these are the verbs of the programming language. In the hands of an attacker, seemingly innocuous operations can be weaponized.

Consider the interplay between variables and operators. A program might expect a variable to hold a positive integer. If an attacker crafts input that results in a negative value, and that value is used in a subsequent calculation or as an index, the outcome could be unpredictable and exploitable. Similarly, logical operators are the gatekeepers of conditional execution. If the logic governing these gates is flawed, an attacker can bypass security checks. For example, a condition like `if (user_is_admin AND user_is_valid)` might be exploitable if the `user_is_valid` check is weak or can be manipulated, allowing unauthorized administrative access.

The lifecycle of a variable—its declaration, initialization, modification, and destruction—is another critical area. Uninitialized variables can contain residual data from previous operations, potentially sensitive information. Insecurely managed variables can be manipulated remotely. Understanding how variables are scoped (local vs. global) and how their values persist or change over time is fundamental to both secure system design and forensic analysis. When investigating a breach, tracing the origin and transformation of key variables can often reveal the attacker's path.

"The most effective way to secure systems is to understand them. Not just the perimeter, but the very logic that binds them together." - cha0smagick

Verdict of the Engineer: Foundations for Defense

This MIT 6.00 course, despite its age, delivers timeless wisdom crucial for cybersecurity professionals. The concepts of computation, data types, operators, and variables are not abstract theories; they are the building blocks of every system we defend. Ignoring them is akin to a general planning a battle without understanding the terrain or the nature of their own troops.

  • Pros: Provides an unparalleled understanding of fundamental computing principles. Essential for anyone serious about deep system analysis, reverse engineering, or secure software development. Builds a strong cognitive framework for offensive and defensive tactics.
  • Cons: The specific implementation examples might be dated (e.g., Python 2.x). The context is purely academic, lacking direct application to modern, complex security scenarios without further augmentation.

Conclusion: While not a "hacking tutorial" in the typical sense, the knowledge imparted here is foundational. It's the prerequisite for truly understanding *how* vulnerabilities are exploited and *how* effective defenses are constructed. For practitioners, it’s a reminder to revisit the basics, to ensure the bedrock of your security posture is solid.

Arsenal of the Operator/Analyst: Essential Tools

While this lecture focuses on theory, practical application requires the right tools. For anyone looking to delve deeper into code analysis, reverse engineering, and cybersecurity in general, consider these essential components:

  • Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Visual Studio Code, PyCharm, Eclipse. Essential for writing, debugging, and analyzing code.
  • Debuggers: GDB, WinDbg, LLDB. Indispensable for stepping through code execution, inspecting memory, and understanding runtime behavior.
  • Disassemblers/Decompilers: IDA Pro, Ghidra, radare2. For analyzing compiled binaries when source code is unavailable.
  • Network Analysis Tools: Wireshark, tcpdump. To inspect network traffic and identify malicious communication patterns.
  • Static/Dynamic Analysis Tools: SAST (e.g., SonarQube) and DAST (e.g., OWASP ZAP) tools for automated code and application security testing.
  • Books: "The Web Application Hacker's Handbook," "Practical Malware Analysis," "Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software."
  • Certifications: CompTIA Security+, OSCP (Offensive Security Certified Professional), GIAC certifications. For structured learning and validation of skills.

Defensive Workshop: Analyzing Basic Code Constructs

Let's apply these foundational principles to a simplified, illustrative code snippet. Our goal is not to exploit it, but to understand how its components could be misused and how we can detect such misuse.

Objective: Identify potential vulnerabilities in a basic script.

  1. Review the Code: Consider a Python-like pseudo-code: 
    
import sys

def process_input(user_data):
    # Assume user_data is a string input from an external source
    buffer_size = 100
    data = [0] * buffer_size  # Initialize buffer with zeros

    if len(user_data) < buffer_size:
        for i in range(len(user_data)):
            data[i] = ord(user_data[i]) # Copy character by character
        print("Data processed: ", "".join(chr(c) for c in data if c != 0))
    else:
        print("Error: Input too large.")
        sys.exit(1) # Exit if input exceeds buffer

process_input(sys.argv[1]) # Process the first command-line argument
  2. Identify Data Types and Variables:
    • `user_data`: String (external input).
    • `buffer_size`: Integer (constant).
    • `data`: List of Integers (fixed size buffer).
    • `i`: Integer (loop counter).
  3. Analyze Operators and Logic:
    • `len(user_data)`: Length calculation.
    • Comparison `<`: Checks if input is within buffer bounds.
    • Assignment `=`: Copies data.
    • `ord()`: Converts character to its integer ASCII/Unicode value.
    • `chr()`: Converts integer value back to character.
    • `sys.exit(1)`: Program termination on error.
  4. Potential Defensive Weaknesses / Attack Vectors (Hypothetical):
    • Buffer Overflow (Conceptual): Although the code checks `len(user_data) < buffer_size`, if `buffer_size` were miscalculated or there was a race condition in a multi-threaded scenario (not shown), an attacker could potentially provide input that *just* fits but causes issues when processed, or if the length check itself was flawed in a more complex scenario. In this *specific* simplified example, the length check prevents a direct buffer overflow *by copying*. However, the core principle of bounded operations remains.
    • Input Validation Flaws: The code assumes `user_data` is a straightforward string of characters that can be directly converted to `ord()`. If `user_data` contained non-printable characters or control sequences, the final `"".join(chr(c) for c in data if c != 0)` might produce unexpected output or terminal control codes, leading to various injection attacks (e.g., terminal escape sequence injection).
    • Integer Truncation/Misinterpretation: In languages with implicit type conversions or less strict handling, if `buffer_size` or `len(user_data)` involved complex calculations, integer overflow/underflow could occur.
  5. Detection Strategies:
    • Log anomalous input lengths: Monitor for inputs that are repeatedly rejected due to `Input too large.`.
    • Sanitize and validate all external input rigorously: Use allow-lists for characters and formats rather than deny-lists.
    • Static Analysis: Use tools to automatically scan code for common vulnerabilities like buffer overflows or unsafe input handling.
    • Dynamic Analysis: Test the application with fuzzing tools to provide unexpected or malformed inputs and observe behavior.

Frequently Asked Questions: Foundational Security

Q1: Is understanding basic programming still relevant for cybersecurity in an age of AI and advanced tools?

Absolutely. AI and advanced tools are built upon fundamental principles. Understanding the 'how' and 'why' behind computation allows you to better leverage these tools, interpret their outputs, and identify their limitations or potential misuses. It's the difference between a pilot who can fly a plane and one who understands the aerodynamics.

Q2: How can I practice analyzing code for vulnerabilities ethically?

Utilize platforms like Hack The Box, TryHackMe, VulnHub, or CTF (Capture The Flag) challenges. These environments provide vulnerable applications and systems specifically designed for ethical practice. Always ensure you have explicit permission before testing any system.

Q3: What's the most common mistake beginners make when learning about data types and variables?

Underestimating the importance of precise data representation and scope. Beginners often assume variables will behave predictably without considering edge cases, overflow conditions, or the lifetime of the data they hold. This leads to subtle bugs that can become significant security flaws.

The Contract: Secure Your Data Representation

The digital world operates on contracts – implicit and explicit agreements about how data is represented, processed, and secured. This lecture reminds us that the most fundamental contracts are those governing data types, variables, and operators. Your contract as a defender is to ensure these fundamental operations are not only understood but are implemented with rigorous validation and security in mind.

Your challenge: Take any simple script you’ve written or encountered. Document every variable, its intended data type, its expected range, and its scope. Then, critically analyze every operator and logical condition. Ask yourself: "How could this be abused? What is the worst-case scenario for this specific operation?" Document your findings. The true strength of our defense lies in the diligence we apply to the smallest, most fundamental units of computation.

This exploration into the foundational MIT 6.00 course serves as a stark reminder: the most sophisticated attacks often exploit the simplest misunderstandings of computer science. For those of us in the trenches of cybersecurity, a return to these core principles isn't a step back; it's reinforcing the bedrock upon which all effective defenses are built. We must master computation to master its security.

Computer Science fundamentals are the bedrock of cybersecurity. Understanding data types, variables, and operators is crucial for building robust defenses and for threat hunting. This analysis from MIT's foundational course provides invaluable insights for security professionals.

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Bash Script Variables: A Hacker's Primer

The flickering cursor on the terminal was my only companion, a stark contrast to the storm brewing in the network logs. Anomalies. Whispers of data moving where it shouldn't. Today, we're not just patching systems; we're performing a digital autopsy. And the first scalpel we wield is the humble, yet potent, Bash variable. Forget your fancy IDEs for a moment; the real work happens here, in the gritty command line. If you're serious about understanding the underlying mechanics of your tools, or crafting your own exploits, you need to master the shell's memory.

Table of Contents

Introduction

This is the second episode in our deep dive into Linux Bash Shell Scripting, the bedrock of many offensive and defensive security operations. In Episode 1, we laid the groundwork. Now, we dissect the very essence of dynamic scripting: variables. Understanding how to define and manipulate variables isn't just about writing cleaner code; it's about crafting tools that are adaptable, efficient, and capable of handling the unpredictable nature of security engagements. For hackers and security professionals, variables are the levers that turn static commands into potent, custom-built exploits and automation suites.

Think of variables as temporary storage lockers for data within your script. They can hold anything from sensitive credentials to the output of complex reconnaissance commands. Mastering them is step one in turning a series of commands into an intelligent agent that can adapt to its environment.

Variables in Programming

Before we dive into the specifics of Bash, let's establish the universal concept. Variables are fundamental. They are named placeholders in memory that store data. This data can be a string of text, a number, a boolean value (true/false), or even more complex data structures. In programming, variables allow us to:

  • Store dynamic information: User input, results of calculations, timestamps, etc.
  • Reuse data: Define a value once and reference it multiple times without repetition.
  • Make code readable: Assign meaningful names to data (e.g., `API_KEY` instead of `xYz789!abc`).
  • Control program flow: Use variables in conditional statements (if/else) and loops.

Without variables, software would be static and incredibly difficult to manage. They are the building blocks that allow for flexibility and intelligence in any computational process.

Variables in Bash Script

Bash scripting takes this concept and applies it directly to the command line. Defining a variable in Bash is surprisingly simple. You don't need to declare a type (like `int` or `string` in other languages); Bash infers it. The syntax is:

VARIABLE_NAME=value

Crucially, there must be no spaces around the equals sign (`=`). Spaces would cause Bash to interpret `VARIABLE_NAME` and `value` as separate commands or arguments.

Let's look at some practical examples:

  • Storing a string:
    • TARGET_HOST="192.168.1.100"
USER_AGENT="Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64; rv:91.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/91.0"
  • Storing a number:
    • PORT=8080
MAX_RETRIES=3
  • Storing the output of a command (Command Substitution): This is where things get really interesting for security tasks. You can capture the results of commands directly into variables.
    • CURRENT_DIRECTORY=$(pwd) # Captures the current working directory
SCAN_RESULTS=$(nmap -sV $TARGET_HOST) # Stores the output of an nmap scan

    The `$(command)` syntax is generally preferred over the older backtick `` `command` `` for readability and nesting capabilities.

Accessing Defined Variables

Once a variable is defined, you access its value by prefixing its name with a dollar sign (`$`). For clarity and to avoid ambiguity, especially when concatenating variables with other characters or words, it's best practice to enclose the variable name in curly braces (`{}`).

echo $TARGET_HOST
# Output: 192.168.1.100

echo ${USER_AGENT}
# Output: Mozilla/5.0 (X11; Linux x86_64; rv:91.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/91.0

echo "Scanning host: ${TARGET_HOST} on port ${PORT}"
# Output: Scanning host: 192.168.1.100 on port 8080

echo "Nmap scan output: ${SCAN_RESULTS}"
# This will print the full output of the nmap command stored in SCAN_RESULTS.

Using curly braces is particularly important when the variable is immediately followed by characters that could be misinterpreted as part of the variable name. For example, if you wanted to append `.log` to a filename variable:

LOG_FILE="session"
# Incorrect, Bash might look for LOG_FILELOG
# echo "${LOG_FILE}.log" 
# Correct
echo "${LOG_FILE}.log" 
# Output: session.log

Readonly Variables in Shell Script

In the chaotic world of scripting, accidental modifications to critical variables can lead to subtle bugs or even security vulnerabilities. Bash offers a safeguard: `readonly` variables. Once declared, their values cannot be changed or unset.

readonly API_KEY="YOUR_ULTRA_SECRET_API_KEY_DO_NOT_CHANGE"
readonly DEFAULT_USER="admin"

echo "API Key: ${API_KEY}"

# Attempting to change it will fail:
# API_KEY="new_key" 
# bash: API_KEY: This variable is read-only. Replacing is forbidden.

# Attempting to unset it will also fail:
# unset API_KEY 
# bash: unset: API_KEY: cannot unset: readonly variable

This feature is invaluable for configuration parameters, API keys, or any value that must remain constant throughout a script's execution. It adds a layer of robustness, preventing unintended side effects.

Linux Programming Special Variables

Bash injects a set of special, built-in variables that provide crucial runtime information. These are not defined by you but are automatically managed by the shell. Understanding them is key to writing robust and informative scripts, especially for error handling and argument processing.

  • $0: The name of the script itself.
  • $1, $2, $3, ...: Positional parameters. These are the arguments passed to the script when it's executed. For example, if you run `./my_script.sh target.com 80`, then $1 would be target.com and $2 would be 80.
  • $@: Represents all positional parameters as separate words. It's typically used within double quotes (`"$@"`) to correctly handle arguments with spaces. This is generally the preferred way to pass arguments through scripts.
  • $*: Represents all positional parameters as a single word. When quoted (`"$*"`), it expands to a single string with all arguments joined by the first character of the IFS (Internal Field Separator) variable (usually a space).
  • $#: The number of positional parameters passed to the script. This is incredibly useful for checking if the correct number of arguments were provided.
  • $$: The process ID (PID) of the current shell. Useful for creating unique temporary filenames or for inter-process communication.
  • $?: The exit status of the most recently executed foreground pipeline. A value of 0 typically indicates success, while any non-zero value indicates an error. This is paramount for error checking.

Let's see $# and $? in action:

#!/bin/bash

# Check if exactly one argument is provided
if [ "$#" -ne 1 ]; then
    echo "Usage: $0 "
    echo "Error: Exactly one argument (target host) is required."
    exit 1 # Exit with a non-zero status (error)
fi

TARGET_HOST="$1"
echo "Target is: ${TARGET_HOST}"

# Attempt to ping the host
ping -c 1 "${TARGET_HOST}" > /dev/null 2>&1

# Check the exit status of the ping command
if [ "$?" -eq 0 ]; then
    echo "${TARGET_HOST} is reachable."
else
    echo "${TARGET_HOST} is unreachable or an error occurred."
    exit 1 # Exit with error status if ping fails
fi

echo "Script finished successfully."
exit 0 # Exit with success status

This script first checks if it received exactly one argument using $#. If not, it prints a usage message and exits with status 1. Then, it attempts to ping the provided host and checks the exit status of the ping command using $? to determine success or failure.

Engineer's Verdict: Is Bash Scripting Still Relevant?

In an era dominated by Python, Go, and Rust, asking if Bash scripting is still relevant is like asking if a trusty lockpick is still relevant in a world of biometric scanners. The answer is a resounding yes, but with caveats. Bash scripting excels at gluing together existing command-line tools, automating sysadmin tasks, and performing rapid prototyping within the Linux/Unix ecosystem. For tasks involving file manipulation, process management, and quick orchestration of multiple utilities (like `grep`, `awk`, `sed`, `nmap`, `curl`), Bash remains unparalleled in its immediacy and ubiquity. However, for complex logic, large-scale applications, or cross-platform compatibility, other languages offer significant advantages in terms of structure, error handling, and performance. As a security professional, proficiency in Bash is non-negotiable; it unlocks the power of the operating system at its most fundamental level.

Operator's Arsenal

To truly master Bash scripting for security operations, augmenting your toolkit is essential:

  • Text Editors/IDEs:
    • Vim/Neovim: The classic, powerful, infinitely configurable terminal-based editor. Essential for remote work.
    • VS Code: Excellent support for Bash scripting with extensions for linting, debugging, and syntax highlighting.
    • Sublime Text: Another lightweight, powerful option.
  • Debugging Tools:
    • set -x: Prints each command before it's executed. Invaluable for tracing script execution.
    • shellcheck: A static analysis tool for shell scripts. Catches common errors and suggests improvements. This is a must-have.
  • Command-Line Utilities:
    • grep, awk, sed: Text processing powerhouses.
    • jq: For parsing JSON data directly from the command line. Essential when dealing with APIs.
    • curl / wget: For data retrieval and interaction with web services.
  • Books:
    • "The Linux Command Line" by William Shotts: A comprehensive guide for mastering the shell.
    • "Bash Pocket Reference": Quick access to syntax and commands.
  • Online Resources:

Investing time in these tools will significantly enhance your scripting capabilities and efficiency.

Practical Workshop: Basic Variable Usage

Let's craft a simple script that uses variables to gather information about a target. This is a rudimentary example, but it demonstrates the core principles.

  1. Create a new script file:

    touch recon_script.sh
chmod +x recon_script.sh

  2. Open the file in your preferred editor and add the following content:

    #!/bin/bash

# --- Configuration Section ---
# Define the target host and port using variables for easy modification.
TARGET_HOST="" # Placeholder for user input later
TARGET_PORT="80"
USER_AGENT="SectempleBot/1.0 (Bash Variable Exploration)"
OUTPUT_DIR="recon_results"

# --- Script Logic ---
echo "Starting reconnaissance..."

# Check if a target host was provided as an argument
if [ -z "$1" ]; then
    echo "Error: Target host is missing. Usage: $0 "
    exit 1
fi

TARGET_HOST="$1" # Assign the first argument to the variable

# Create the output directory if it doesn't exist
if [ ! -d "$OUTPUT_DIR" ]; then
    echo "Creating output directory: ${OUTPUT_DIR}"
    mkdir "${OUTPUT_DIR}"
    if [ "$?" -ne 0 ]; then
        echo "Error: Could not create directory ${OUTPUT_DIR}. Check permissions."
        exit 1
    fi
else
    echo "Output directory ${OUTPUT_DIR} already exists."
fi

echo "--- Target Information ---"
echo "Host: ${TARGET_HOST}"
echo "Port: ${TARGET_PORT}"
echo "User-Agent: ${USER_AGENT}"
echo "Output will be saved in: ${OUTPUT_DIR}"

# Example: Perform a simple curl request and save output
echo "Performing basic HTTP GET request..."
curl -A "${USER_AGENT}" -s "http://${TARGET_HOST}:${TARGET_PORT}" -o "${OUTPUT_DIR}/index.html"

if [ "$?" -eq 0 ]; then
    echo "Successfully fetched index page to ${OUTPUT_DIR}/index.html"
    echo "Page size: $(wc -c < "${OUTPUT_DIR}/index.html") bytes"
else
    echo "Failed to fetch index page from ${TARGET_HOST}:${TARGET_PORT}"
fi

echo "Reconnaissance finished."
exit 0

  3. Run the script with a target:

    ./recon_script.sh example.com

    Replace example.com with an actual domain or IP address you are authorized to test.

This script demonstrates defining variables for configuration, using special variables like $1 and $? for input and error checking, and accessing variables within commands like curl.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1: How do I deal with spaces in variable values?

Always enclose variable assignments and accesses in double quotes (e.g., MY_VAR="value with spaces" and echo "${MY_VAR}"). This prevents the shell from splitting the value into multiple words.

Q2: What's the difference between $@ and $*?

When quoted, "$@" expands to each argument as a separate word (ideal for passing arguments to other commands), while "$*" expands to a single string with arguments joined by the first IFS character.

Q3: Can Bash variables store complex data structures like arrays or hashes?

Yes, modern Bash versions (4+) support arrays. Hashing (associative arrays) is also supported. For example: my_array=("apple" "banana" "cherry") and declare -A my_hash=(["key1"]="value1" ["key2"]="value2").

Q4: How can I use variables to store passwords securely?

Storing passwords directly in scripts is highly discouraged. For interactive scripts, use the read -s command to prompt the user securely. For automated tasks, consider using environment variables set outside the script, secrets management tools (like HashiCorp Vault), or secure credential storage mechanisms.

The Contract: Fortify Your Scripts

You've seen how variables are the connective tissue of Bash scripts, enabling dynamic behavior crucial for security tasks. You've learned to define them, access them, and leverage special variables for control and error handling. Now, the contract is yours to fulfill:

Your Challenge:

Modify the recon_script.sh from the workshop. Add a new variable for a specific user agent you want to test (e.g., mimicking a common browser). Then, add a check using $? after the curl command. If the curl command fails (exit status is not 0), print a specific error message indicating the failure type beyond just "failed to fetch". Experiment with different target hosts and ports to observe the variable behavior and error handling.

Now is the time to test your understanding. The network is a complex beast, and your scripts will be your tools. Master the variables, and you master the automation. Fail to do so, and you're just another script kiddie fumbling in the dark.

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